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gives the ability

  • 1 ability

    სიმარჯვე, ნიჭი, უნარიანობა; ვალის გადახდის უნარიანობა
    I’ll do it to the best of my ability ყველაფერს ვიღონებ
    I’m in no doubt about his ability ეჭვი არ მეპარება, რომ ნიჭიერია
    this job gives scope for my abilities ეს სამუშაო გაქანების საშუალებას მაძლევს
    amazing/great/little ability საოცარი/დიდი/ნცირე უნარი
    to appraise smb's abilities / property ვისიმე შესაძლებლობების / ქონების შეფასება

    English-Georgian dictionary > ability

  • 2 Experience shows that success is due less to ability than to zeal. The winner is he who gives himself to his work, body and soul.

    <01> Опыт показывает, что успеха добиваются не столько способностями, сколько усердием. Побеждает тот, кто и душой и телом отдается своей работе. Buxton (Бакстон).

    Англо-русский словарь цитат, пословиц, поговорок и идиом > Experience shows that success is due less to ability than to zeal. The winner is he who gives himself to his work, body and soul.

  • 3 давать возможность

    •

    These vectorlike properties let us derive an expression that...

    •

    This relation provides (or presents) a way (or a possibility, or a means) of estimating the actual savings.

    •

    This enables the operator to detect changes in amine concentrations.

    •

    This method enables one (or us) to solve the Hitchcock problem. The testing machine makes possible testing (or makes it possible to test) large components.

    •

    These curves permit the life of bearings to be accurately specified.

    •

    A sharp peak due to stretching of the aldehydic C-H serves to differentiate it from other types of carbonyl compound.

    •

    Alpha emission provides a way for an unstable nucleus to lose two protons and two neutrons simultaneously.

    •

    These criteria provide the means of classifying (or furnish an opportunity to classify) the coal by rank.

    * * *
    Давать возможность -- to give the ability (+ inf.), to allow for, to allow the opportunity of, to provide an (the) opportunity (+ inf.), to provide a means of, to offer the potential of, to offer the potential for, to enable
     The process gives the ability to remove soluble or suspended iron to the maximum extent possible.
     Additionally, some relatively purposeful analysis of the numerical experiments allowed for computational simplifications of the results.
     Testing in this hierarchical pattern allowed the opportunity of rapidly evaluating the maximum number of concepts requiring minimal time and cost.
     The discusser's comments provide an opportunity to call attention to a point of much value to the original paper.
     Transpiration cooled liner approaches offer the potential of substantial reductions in liner cooling flow requirements.
     The parameter approach offers the potential for extrapolating data without extensive long time testing.
     The use of a numerical technique has enabled a more general solution of the equations than was previously possible.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > давать возможность

  • 4 console

    = CON
    консоль, пульт (управления)
    1) терминал, состоящий из монитора и клавиатуры, или ПК, выступающий в роли устройства ввода команд для ЭВМ, удалённой ЭВМ, локальной сети и т. п.

    This reduces the risk of errors and gives the ability to manage all systems from one central console. — Тем самым уменьшается риск ошибок и появляется возможность управлять всеми системами с одного центрального пульта см. тж. CCP, console application, console operator, master console, system console, terminal, VDU

    3) терминал или выделенное окно экрана, на которое выводятся сообщения системы
    4) см. game console

    Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > console

  • 5 active monitoring

    "Gives Lync system administrators the ability to monitor pools, servers, and networks across data centers through the public Internet."

    English-Arabic terms dictionary > active monitoring

  • 6 aterrador

    adj.
    terrifying, frightful, frightening, awesome.
    * * *
    1 terrifying, frightful
    * * *
    (f. - aterradora)
    adj.
    frightening, terrifying
    * * *
    * * *
    - dora adjetivo terrifying
    * * *
    = frightening, terrifying, terrorising [terrorizing, -USA], frightful, fear-inducing, hideous, hair-raising, groundshaking, creepy [creepier -comp., creepiest -sup.].
    Ex. No echo of so frightening a concept, 'class', ever lingers within the hushed precincts of our libraries.
    Ex. To the general public 'the female librarian is still angular, elderly, acidulous and terrifying', to use Geoffrey Langley's words, 'and a male librarian is impossible under any hypothesis'.
    Ex. He perceived that his life threatened to be an interminable succession of these mortifying interviews unless he could discover a way or ways to deal with her surly and terrorizing ferocity.
    Ex. The book, written by a man who is not a military historian as such, is concerned above all with showing the war's hideousness, its frightful human cost, its pathos and loss, and its essential failure to achieve its objectives.
    Ex. The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex. The book focuses on images where hideous atrocities -- e.g., murder, blasphemy, wanton destruction and even cannibalism -- are shown to be part of the daily life of the common people of Paris during the revolution.
    Ex. This ' hair-raising' experience will allow students to have a better understanding of what energy is and why it's so important.
    Ex. The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.
    Ex. For me, it's like those really creepy films I used to like watching when I was a kid.
    * * *
    - dora adjetivo terrifying
    * * *
    = frightening, terrifying, terrorising [terrorizing, -USA], frightful, fear-inducing, hideous, hair-raising, groundshaking, creepy [creepier -comp., creepiest -sup.].

    Ex: No echo of so frightening a concept, 'class', ever lingers within the hushed precincts of our libraries.

    Ex: To the general public 'the female librarian is still angular, elderly, acidulous and terrifying', to use Geoffrey Langley's words, 'and a male librarian is impossible under any hypothesis'.
    Ex: He perceived that his life threatened to be an interminable succession of these mortifying interviews unless he could discover a way or ways to deal with her surly and terrorizing ferocity.
    Ex: The book, written by a man who is not a military historian as such, is concerned above all with showing the war's hideousness, its frightful human cost, its pathos and loss, and its essential failure to achieve its objectives.
    Ex: The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex: The book focuses on images where hideous atrocities -- e.g., murder, blasphemy, wanton destruction and even cannibalism -- are shown to be part of the daily life of the common people of Paris during the revolution.
    Ex: This ' hair-raising' experience will allow students to have a better understanding of what energy is and why it's so important.
    Ex: The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.
    Ex: For me, it's like those really creepy films I used to like watching when I was a kid.

    * * *
    terrifying
    * * *

    aterrador
    ◊ - dora adjetivo

    terrifying
    aterrador,-ora adjetivo terrifying

    ' aterrador' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    aterradora
    English:
    chilling
    - frightful
    - terrifying
    - terrifyingly
    - blood
    - fearful
    - fearsome
    - frightening
    * * *
    aterrador, -ora adj
    terrifying
    * * *
    adj frightening, terrifying
    * * *
    aterrador, - dora adj
    : terrifying
    * * *
    aterrador adj terrifying

    Spanish-English dictionary > aterrador

  • 7 espantoso

    adj.
    frightening, frightful, fearsome, dreadful.
    * * *
    1 (terrible) frightful, dreadful
    2 (asombroso) astonishing, amazing
    3 (desmesurado) dreadful, terrible
    ■ hizo un frío espantoso the cold was awful, it was absolutely freezing
    * * *
    (f. - espantosa)
    adj.
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) (=aterrador) frightening
    2) [para exagerar]

    llevaba un traje espantoso — she was wearing an awful o a hideous o a frightful o ghastly * hat

    * * *
    - sa adjetivo
    a) <escena/crimen> horrific, appalling
    b) (fam) ( uso hiperbólico) <comida/letra/tiempo> atrocious; <vestido/color> hideous; <ruido/voz> terrible, awful

    hace un calor espantoso — it's boiling o roasting hot (colloq)

    * * *
    = frightening, harrowing, atrocious, awful, frightful, dire, ghastly, fear-inducing, hideous, shocking, horrible, dreadful, grisly [grislier -comp., grisliest -sup.], god-awful, groundshaking, nightmarish.
    Ex. No echo of so frightening a concept, 'class', ever lingers within the hushed precincts of our libraries.
    Ex. See Michael R. Booth, 'English Melodrama', for further details of this harrowing tale.
    Ex. The public library's selection of books for small boys is atrocious.
    Ex. These articles were written by those who have had first hand experience of the awful consequences of not devoting enough time to testing their security systems.
    Ex. The book, written by a man who is not a military historian as such, is concerned above all with showing the war's hideousness, its frightful human cost, its pathos and loss, and its essential failure to achieve its objectives.
    Ex. Throughout the process of development, debate and enactment of the Digital Millennium Act in the USA, many dire forebodings were envisaged for the library profession.
    Ex. True, ghastly additions were made to XML.
    Ex. The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex. The book focuses on images where hideous atrocities -- e.g., murder, blasphemy, wanton destruction and even cannibalism -- are shown to be part of the daily life of the common people of Paris during the revolution.
    Ex. The author mentions several recent shocking revelations concerning the activities of the Japanese government and its officials.
    Ex. Not saving the wildlife is too horrible to contemplate, but saving it will require us to accept harsh realities and abandon romantic notions.
    Ex. The same author also wrote the book 'Serials deselection: a dreadful dilemma'.
    Ex. Much of what he sees and shows his readers is grim, if not grisly.
    Ex. The director and deputies deserve the most recognition because they actually had to give up time with their families for the god-awful places we sent them.
    Ex. The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.
    Ex. It was the drugs that made me mad: Jane was anorexic, but the treatment prescribed pushed her over the edge for 22 nightmarish years.
    ----
    * dolor de cabeza espantoso = splitting headache.
    * * *
    - sa adjetivo
    a) <escena/crimen> horrific, appalling
    b) (fam) ( uso hiperbólico) <comida/letra/tiempo> atrocious; <vestido/color> hideous; <ruido/voz> terrible, awful

    hace un calor espantoso — it's boiling o roasting hot (colloq)

    * * *
    = frightening, harrowing, atrocious, awful, frightful, dire, ghastly, fear-inducing, hideous, shocking, horrible, dreadful, grisly [grislier -comp., grisliest -sup.], god-awful, groundshaking, nightmarish.

    Ex: No echo of so frightening a concept, 'class', ever lingers within the hushed precincts of our libraries.

    Ex: See Michael R. Booth, 'English Melodrama', for further details of this harrowing tale.
    Ex: The public library's selection of books for small boys is atrocious.
    Ex: These articles were written by those who have had first hand experience of the awful consequences of not devoting enough time to testing their security systems.
    Ex: The book, written by a man who is not a military historian as such, is concerned above all with showing the war's hideousness, its frightful human cost, its pathos and loss, and its essential failure to achieve its objectives.
    Ex: Throughout the process of development, debate and enactment of the Digital Millennium Act in the USA, many dire forebodings were envisaged for the library profession.
    Ex: True, ghastly additions were made to XML.
    Ex: The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex: The book focuses on images where hideous atrocities -- e.g., murder, blasphemy, wanton destruction and even cannibalism -- are shown to be part of the daily life of the common people of Paris during the revolution.
    Ex: The author mentions several recent shocking revelations concerning the activities of the Japanese government and its officials.
    Ex: Not saving the wildlife is too horrible to contemplate, but saving it will require us to accept harsh realities and abandon romantic notions.
    Ex: The same author also wrote the book 'Serials deselection: a dreadful dilemma'.
    Ex: Much of what he sees and shows his readers is grim, if not grisly.
    Ex: The director and deputies deserve the most recognition because they actually had to give up time with their families for the god-awful places we sent them.
    Ex: The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.
    Ex: It was the drugs that made me mad: Jane was anorexic, but the treatment prescribed pushed her over the edge for 22 nightmarish years.
    * dolor de cabeza espantoso = splitting headache.

    * * *
    1 ‹escena/crimen› horrific, appalling
    fue una experiencia espantosa it was a horrific o horrifying experience
    2 ( fam)
    (uso hiperbólico): hace un calor espantoso it's boiling o roasting, it's incredibly o unbearably hot ( colloq)
    pasamos un frío espantoso we were absolutely freezing ( colloq)
    tengo un hambre espantosa I'm ravenous o starving ( colloq)
    la comida era espantosa the food was atrocious o ghastly
    ¡qué sombrero tan espantoso! what a hideous o an awful hat
    esta máquina hace un ruido espantoso this machine makes a terrible o dreadful noise ( colloq)
    llueve que es una cosa espantosa it's absolutely pouring ( colloq), it's bucketing down ( colloq)
    * * *

    espantoso
    ◊ -sa adjetivo

    a) ‹escena/crimen› horrific, appalling

    b) (fam) ( uso hiperbólico) ‹comida/letra/tiempo› atrocious;

    ‹vestido/color› hideous;
    ‹ruido/voz› terrible, awful;

    espantoso,-a adjetivo
    1 (horripilante) horrifying, appalling: es un asunto espantoso, it's a horrifying situation
    2 fam (uso hiperbólico) tengo unas ganas espantosas de que llegue el fin de semana, I'm dying for the weekend to come!
    3 fam (muy feo) awful, hideous: ¡quítate ese espantoso sombrero!, take off that awful hat!
    ' espantoso' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    berrido
    - espantosa
    - ridícula
    - ridículo
    - sueño
    - tener
    - hacer
    English:
    diabolic
    - diabolical
    - dreadful
    - frightening
    - frightful
    - ghastly
    - gruesome
    - hairy
    - hideous
    - horrendous
    - interminable
    - shocking
    - stinking
    - wretched
    - abominable
    - atrocious
    - boiling
    - dire
    - excruciating
    - horrific
    - split
    - terrible
    - terrific
    * * *
    espantoso, -a adj
    1. [pavoroso] horrific
    2. [enorme] terrible;
    allí dentro hacía un calor espantoso it was roasting o boiling o terribly hot in there;
    tengo un frío espantoso I'm freezing to death;
    teníamos un hambre espantosa we were famished o starving
    3. [feísimo] hideous, frightful;
    llevaba un vestido espantoso she was wearing a hideous o frightful dress
    4. [pasmoso] appalling, shocking;
    el servicio postal era espantoso the postal service was appalling;
    * * *
    adj
    1 horrific, appalling
    2 para enfatizar terrible, dreadful;
    hace un calor espantoso it’s terribly o incredibly hot
    * * *
    espantoso, -sa adj
    1) : frightening, terrifying
    2) : frightful, dreadful
    * * *
    espantoso adj awful / dreadful

    Spanish-English dictionary > espantoso

  • 8 terrorífico

    adj.
    terrifying, frightening, horrible, terrible.
    * * *
    1 terrifying, frightening
    * * *
    ADJ terrifying, frightening
    * * *
    - ca adjetivo horrific
    * * *
    = terrifying, fear-inducing, groundshaking.
    Ex. To the general public 'the female librarian is still angular, elderly, acidulous and terrifying', to use Geoffrey Langley's words, 'and a male librarian is impossible under any hypothesis'.
    Ex. The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex. The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.
    * * *
    - ca adjetivo horrific
    * * *
    = terrifying, fear-inducing, groundshaking.

    Ex: To the general public 'the female librarian is still angular, elderly, acidulous and terrifying', to use Geoffrey Langley's words, 'and a male librarian is impossible under any hypothesis'.

    Ex: The author suggests that the ability to enjoy fear-inducing media increases with age.
    Ex: The author gives an insider's perspective on what it feels like to be an Arab since the groundshaking events of 1967 when Arab hopes were unexpectedly shattered by the outcome of the Arab Israeli war.

    * * *
    horrific
    * * *

    terrorífico
    ◊ -ca adjetivo

    horrific
    terrorífico,-a adjetivo
    1 (que causa miedo) terrifying, frightening
    2 (desastroso, desagradable) dreadful, horrific

    ' terrorífico' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    terrorífica
    * * *
    terrorífico, -a adj
    terrifying
    * * *
    adj terrifying, frightening
    * * *
    terrorífico, -ca adj
    : horrific, terrifying
    * * *
    terrorífico adj terrifying / frightening

    Spanish-English dictionary > terrorífico

  • 9 resource

    [rə'zo:s, ]( American[) 'ri:zo:rs]
    1) ((usually in plural) something that gives help, support etc when needed; a supply; a means: We have used up all our resources; We haven't the resources at this school for teaching handicapped children.) middel; ressource
    2) ((usually in plural) the wealth of a country, or the supply of materials etc which bring this wealth: This country is rich in natural resources.) ressourcer
    3) (the ability to find ways of solving difficulties: He is full of resource.) ressource
    •
    - resourcefully
    - resourcefulness
    * * *
    [rə'zo:s, ]( American[) 'ri:zo:rs]
    1) ((usually in plural) something that gives help, support etc when needed; a supply; a means: We have used up all our resources; We haven't the resources at this school for teaching handicapped children.) middel; ressource
    2) ((usually in plural) the wealth of a country, or the supply of materials etc which bring this wealth: This country is rich in natural resources.) ressourcer
    3) (the ability to find ways of solving difficulties: He is full of resource.) ressource
    •
    - resourcefully
    - resourcefulness

    English-Danish dictionary > resource

  • 10 moldear la opinión pública

    (v.) = mould + public opinion
    Ex. This paper gives reasons why changes are occurring in the ability to the British government to mould public opinion.
    * * *
    (v.) = mould + public opinion

    Ex: This paper gives reasons why changes are occurring in the ability to the British government to mould public opinion.

    Spanish-English dictionary > moldear la opinión pública

  • 11 time sovereignty

    Gen Mgt
    control over the way you spend your time. Time sovereignty gives employees the ability to arrange their working lives to suit their own situations. It involves handing decisions on working hours to employees, enabling them to work flexibly, so that they can better juggle the work-life balance. Time sovereignty is more than just good time management, as it gives people control over the way they arrange their lives, rather than having to manage time within the decreed hours. It has been argued that rather than viewing work and home as separate lives, employees should see that they are living just one life that integrates both parts. Time sovereignty gives mastery over managing life as a whole.

    The ultimate business dictionary > time sovereignty

  • 12 lead

    I noun
    1) (metal) Blei, das

    go down like a lead balloon — mit Pauken und Trompeten durchfallen (ugs.); [Rede, Vorschlag usw.:] überhaupt nicht ankommen

    2) (in pencil) [Bleistift]mine, die
    II 1. transitive verb,

    lead somebody by the hand — jemanden an der Hand führen

    lead somebody by the nose — (fig.) jemanden nach seiner Pfeife tanzen lassen

    lead somebody into trouble — (fig.) jemandem Ärger einbringen

    this is leading us nowhere — (fig.) das führt zu nichts

    2) (fig.): (influence, induce)

    lead somebody to do something — jemanden veranlassen, etwas zu tun

    that leads me to believe that... — das lässt mich glauben, dass...

    he led me to suppose/believe that... — er gab mir Grund zu der Annahme/er machte mich glauben, dass...

    3) führen [Leben]

    lead a life of misery/a miserable existence — ein erbärmliches Dasein führen/eine kümmerliche Existenz fristen

    4) (be first in) anführen

    lead the world in electrical engineering — auf dem Gebiet der Elektrotechnik in der ganzen Welt führend sein

    Smith led Jones by several yards/seconds — (Sport) Smith hatte mehrere Yards/Sekunden Vorsprung vor Jones

    5) (direct, be head of) anführen [Bewegung, Abordnung]; leiten [Diskussion, Veranstaltung, Ensemble]; [Dirigent:] leiten [Orchester, Chor]; [Konzertmeister:] führen [Orchester]

    lead a party — Vorsitzender/Vorsitzende einer Partei sein

    2. intransitive verb,
    1) [Straße usw., Tür:] führen

    lead to the town/to the sea — zur Stadt/ans Meer führen

    one thing led to another — es kam eins zum anderen

    2) (be first) führen; (go in front) vorangehen; (fig.): (be leader) an der Spitze stehen

    lead by 3 metres — mit 3 Metern in Führung liegen; 3 Meter Vorsprung haben

    3. noun
    1) (precedent) Beispiel, das; (clue) Anhaltspunkt, der

    follow somebody's lead, take one's lead from somebody — jemandes Beispiel (Dat.) folgen

    2) (first place) Führung, die

    be in the lead — in Führung liegen; an der Spitze liegen

    move or go into the lead, take the lead — sich an die Spitze setzen; in Führung gehen

    3) (amount, distance) Vorsprung, der
    4) (on dog etc.) Leine, die
    5) (Electr.) Kabel, das; Leitung, die
    6) (Theatre) Hauptrolle, die; (player) Hauptdarsteller, der/-darstellerin, die
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/42119/lead_away">lead away
    * * *
    I 1. [li:d] past tense, past participle - led; verb
    1) (to guide or direct or cause to go in a certain direction: Follow my car and I'll lead you to the motorway; She took the child by the hand and led him across the road; He was leading the horse into the stable; The sound of hammering led us to the garage; You led us to believe that we would be paid!) führen
    2) (to go or carry to a particular place or along a particular course: A small path leads through the woods.) führen
    3) ((with to) to cause or bring about a certain situation or state of affairs: The heavy rain led to serious floods.) führen
    4) (to be first (in): An official car led the procession; He is still leading in the competition.) anführen
    5) (to live (a certain kind of life): She leads a pleasant existence on a Greek island.) führen
    2. noun
    1) (the front place or position: He has taken over the lead in the race.) die Führung
    2) (the state of being first: We have a lead over the rest of the world in this kind of research.) die Führung
    3) (the act of leading: We all followed his lead.) die Führung
    4) (the amount by which one is ahead of others: He has a lead of twenty metres (over the man in second place).) der Vorsprung
    5) (a leather strap or chain for leading a dog etc: All dogs must be kept on a lead.) die Leine
    6) (a piece of information which will help to solve a mystery etc: The police have several leads concerning the identity of the thief.) der Hinweis
    7) (a leading part in a play etc: Who plays the lead in that film?) die Hauptrolle
    •
    - leader
    - leadership
    - lead on
    - lead up the garden path
    - lead up to
    - lead the way     II [led] noun
    1) (( also adjective) (of) an element, a soft, heavy, bluish-grey metal: lead pipes; Are these pipes made of lead or copper?) das Blei
    2) (the part of a pencil that leaves a mark: The lead of my pencil has broken.) die Mine
    •
    * * *
    lead1
    [led]
    I. n
    1. no pl (metal) Blei nt
    to be as heavy as \lead schwer wie Blei sein
    to contain \lead bleihaltig sein
    2. (pencil filling) Mine f
    3. no pl (graphite) Grafit m
    4. no pl (bullets) Blei nt veraltet, Kugeln pl
    ▪ \leads pl (in windows) Bleifassung f; (on roofs) Bleiplatten pl
    7.
    ▶ to have \lead in one's pencil ein steifes Rohr haben sl vulg
    ▶ to get the \lead out sich akk beeilen
    ▶ to swing the \lead BRIT ( fam: pretend to be sick) krankfeiern fam; (pretend to be incapable of work) sich akk drücken fam, schwänzen SCHWEIZ fam
    II. n modifier (bullet, crystal, pipe, weight) Blei-
    \lead accumulator Bleiakkumulator m
    ▶ to go down like a \lead balloon überhaupt nicht ankommen fam
    lead2
    [li:d]
    I. n
    1. THEAT, FILM Hauptrolle f
    to get/play the \lead [in sth] [in etw dat] die Hauptrolle bekommen/spielen
    2. usu sing (guiding, example) Beispiel nt
    to follow sb's \lead jds Beispiel folgen
    3. usu sing (guiding in dance) Führung f kein pl
    to give a strong \lead gut führen
    to follow sb's \lead sich akk von jdm führen lassen
    4. no pl (front position) Führung f
    ▪ to be in the \lead führend sein; SPORT in Führung liegen
    to go [or move] into the \lead die Führung übernehmen; SPORT sich akk an die Spitze setzen
    to have/hold/take [over] the \lead die Führung haben/verteidigen/übernehmen
    to lose one's \lead die Führung verlieren
    5. (position in advance) Vorsprung m
    6. (clue) Hinweis m
    to get a \lead on sth einen Hinweis auf etw akk bekommen
    7. (connecting wire) Kabel nt
    8. BRIT, AUS (rope for pet) Leine f
    ▪ to be on a \lead angeleint sein
    to keep an animal on a \lead ein Tier an der Leine halten
    to let an animal off the \lead ein Tier von der Leine lassen, ein Tier frei laufen lassen
    to be [let] off the \lead ( fig hum) sturmfreie Bude haben fam
    9. TYPO Durchschuss m
    II. vt
    <led, led>
    1. (be in charge of)
    ▪ to \lead sb/sth jdn/etw führen
    she led the party to victory sie führte die Partei zum Sieg
    to \lead a delegation/an expedition eine Delegation/eine Expedition leiten
    to \lead a discussion/an inquiry eine Diskussion/Ermittlungen leiten
    to \lead sb in prayer jdm vorbeten
    ▪ to \lead sb/sth jdn/etw führen
    ▪ to \lead sb into/over/through sth jdn in/über/durch etw akk führen
    ▪ to \lead sb to sth jdn zu etw dat führen
    to \lead sb astray jdn auf Abwege führen
    3. (go in advance)
    to \lead the way vorangehen
    to \lead the way in sth ( fig) bei etw dat an der Spitze stehen
    to \lead sb [in]to problems jdn in Schwierigkeiten bringen
    ▪ to \lead sb to do sth jdn dazu verleiten, etw zu tun
    to \lead sb to believe that... jdn glauben lassen, dass...
    6. ECON, SPORT (be ahead of)
    ▪ to \lead sb jdn anführen
    to \lead the field/the pack das Feld/die Gruppe anführen
    to \lead the world weltweit führend sein
    7. (spend)
    to \lead a life of luxury ein Leben im Luxus führen
    to \lead a cat-and-dog life wie Hund und Katze leben
    to \lead a charmed life (be very lucky in life) ein glückliches Leben führen; (be guarded from above) einen Schutzengel haben
    to \lead a hectic/quiet life ein hektisches/ruhiges Leben führen
    the life she \leads is very relaxed sie führt ein sehr bequemes Leben
    ▪ to \lead sb witness jdn beeinflussen
    9.
    ▶ to \lead sb up [or down] the garden path ( fam) jdn an der Nase herumführen [o hinters Licht führen]
    ▶ to \lead sb a merry dance ( fam) sein Spiel mit jdm treiben
    ▶ to \lead sb by the nose ( fam) jdn unter seiner Fuchtel haben fam
    III. vi
    <led, led>
    1. (be in charge) die Leitung innehaben
    2. (be guide) vorangehen
    where she \leads, others will follow sie ist eine starke Führungspersönlichkeit
    to \lead from the front ( fig) den Ton angeben
    3. (guide woman dancer) führen
    4. (be directed towards)
    ▪ to \lead somewhere irgendwohin führen
    the track \leads across the fields der Pfad führt über die Felder
    this passage \leads into the servants' quarters dieser Gang führt zu den Wohnräumen der Bediensteten
    the door \leads onto a wide shady terrace die Tür geht auf eine große, schattige Terrasse hinaus
    ▪ to \lead to sth auf etw akk hinweisen
    everything \leads to this conclusion alles legt diese Schlussfolgerung nahe
    6. (cause to develop, happen)
    ▪ to \lead to sth zu etw dat führen
    this is bound to \lead to trouble das muss zwangsläufig zu Schwierigkeiten führen
    all this talk is \leading nowhere all dieses Gerede führt zu [o fam bringt] nichts
    where's it all going to \lead? wo soll das alles noch hinführen?
    7. (be in the lead) führen; SPORT in Führung liegen
    to \lead by 10 points mit 10 Punkten in Führung liegen
    8. LAW in einem Prozess auftreten
    to \lead for the prosecution die Anklage[verhandlung] eröffnen
    9.
    ▶ to \lead with one's chin ( fam) das Schicksal herausfordern
    ▶ all roads \lead to Rome ( saying) alle Wege führen nach Rom prov
    * * *
    I [led]
    1. n
    1) (= metal) Blei nt
    2) (in pencil) Grafit nt, Graphit nt; (= single lead) Mine f

    that'll put lead in your pencil (inf) — das wird dir die Glieder stärken (inf)

    3) (NAUT) Lot nt
    4) pl (on roof) Bleiplatten pl; (in window) Bleifassung f
    2. vt
    (= weight with lead) mit Blei beschweren II [liːd] vb: pret, ptp led
    1. n
    1) (= front position) Spitzenposition f; (= leading position, SPORT) Führung f, Spitze f; (in league etc) Tabellenspitze f

    to be in the lead — führend sein, in Führung liegen; (Sport) in Führung or vorn liegen, führen

    to take the lead, to move into the lead — in Führung gehen, die Führung übernehmen; (in league) Tabellenführer werden

    this set gives him the lead —

    Japan took the lead from Germany in exports — Japan verdrängte Deutschland auf dem Exportmarkt von der Spitze

    2) (= distance, time ahead) Vorsprung m
    3) (= example) Beispiel nt

    to take the lead, to show a lead — mit gutem Beispiel vorangehen

    4) (= clue) Indiz nt, Anhaltspunkt m; (in guessing etc) Hinweis m, Tipp m
    5) (CARDS)
    6) (THEAT) (= part) Hauptrolle f; (= person) Hauptdarsteller(in) m(f)
    7) (= leash) Leine f
    8) (ELEC) Leitung(skabel nt) f, Kabel nt; (from separate source) Zuleitung f (form)
    2. vt
    1) (= conduct) person, animal führen; water leiten

    to lead sb in/out etc — jdn hinein-/hinaus- etc führen

    to lead the way (lit, fig) — vorangehen; ( fig

    2) (= be the leader of, direct) (an)führen; expedition, team leiten; regiment führen; movement, revolution anführen; conversation bestimmen; orchestra (conductor) leiten; (first violin) führen

    to lead a government — an der Spitze einer Regierung stehen, Regierungschef sein

    to lead a party — Parteivorsitzender sein, den Parteivorsitz führen

    3) (= be first in) anführen

    Britain leads the world in textiles — Großbritannien ist auf dem Gebiet der Textilproduktion führend in der Welt

    4) card ausspielen
    5) life führen

    to lead a life of luxury/deception — ein Luxusleben/betrügerisches Leben führen

    6) (= influence) beeinflussen

    to lead sb to do sth — jdn dazu bringen, etw zu tun

    to lead a witness — einen Zeugen/eine Zeugin beeinflussen

    what led him to change his mind? — wie kam er dazu, seine Meinung zu ändern?

    to lead sb to believe that... — jdm den Eindruck vermitteln, dass..., jdn glauben machen, dass... (geh)

    I am led to believe that... —

    this led me to the conclusion that... — daraus schloss ich, dass...

    I am led to the conclusion that... —

    7) wire, flex legen, entlangführen
    3. vi
    1) (= go in front) vorangehen; (in race) in Führung liegen

    to lead by 10 metres — einen Vorsprung von 10 Metern haben, mit 10 Metern in Führung liegen

    he always follows where his brother leads — er macht alles nach, was sein Bruder macht

    the "Times" led with a story about the financial crisis —

    2) (= be a leader also in dancing) führen

    he had shown the ability to lead — er hat gezeigt, dass er Führungsqualitäten besitzt

    who leads? — wer spielt aus?, wer fängt an?

    4) (street etc) führen, gehen
    5) (= result in, cause) führen (to zu)

    what will all these strikes lead to? — wo sollen all diese Streiks hinführen?

    * * *
    lead1 [liːd]
    A s
    1. Führung f:
    a) Leitung f:
    under sb’s lead
    b) führende Stelle, Spitze f:
    be in the lead an der Spitze stehen, führend sein, SPORT etc in Führung oder vorn(e) liegen, führen;
    give one’s team the lead SPORT seine Mannschaft in Führung bringen;
    have the lead die Führung innehaben, SPORT etc in Führung oder vorn(e) liegen, führen;
    shoot one’s team into the lead SPORT seine Mannschaft in Führung schießen;
    a) auch SPORT die Führung übernehmen, sich an die Spitze setzen ( beide:
    from vor dat),
    b) die Initiative ergreifen,
    c) vorangehen, neue Wege weisen
    2. Vorsprung m ( over vor dat) ( auch SPORT):
    a one minute’s ( oder one-minute) lead eine Minute Vorsprung;
    have a big lead einen großen Vorsprung haben, hoch führen;
    have a two-goal lead mit zwei Toren führen;
    have the lead over einen Vorsprung vor der Konkurrenz haben, voraus sein (dat)
    3. Boxen: (eine Schlagserie) einleitender Schlag
    4. Vorbild n, Beispiel n:
    follow sb’s lead jemandes Beispiel folgen;
    give sb a lead jemandem ein gutes Beispiel geben, jemandem mit gutem Beispiel vorangehen
    5. a) Hinweis m, Wink m
    b) Anhaltspunkt m
    c) Spur f:
    give sb a lead jemandem einen Hinweis oder Anhaltspunkt geben; jemanden auf die Spur bringen
    6. THEAT etc
    a) Hauptrolle f
    b) Hauptdarsteller(in)
    a) Vorhand f
    b) zuerst ausgespielte Karte oder Farbe:
    your lead! Sie spielen aus!
    a) Vorspann m (eines Zeitungsartikels)
    b) Aufmacher m:
    the scandal was the lead in the papers der Skandal wurde von den Zeitungen groß herausgestellt
    9. TECH Steigung f, Ganghöhe f (eines Gewindes)
    10. ELEK
    a) (Zu)Leitung f
    b) Leiter m, Leitungsdraht m
    c) (Phasen) Voreilung f
    11. (Mühl) Kanal m
    12. Wasserrinne f (in einem Eisfeld)
    13. (Hunde) Leine f:
    keep on the lead an der Leine führen oder halten
    14. MIL Vorhalt m
    B adj Leit…, Führungs…, Haupt…
    C v/t prät und pperf led [led]
    1. führen, leiten, jemandem den Weg zeigen:
    lead the way vorangehen, den Weg zeigen; → garden path, nose Bes Redew
    2. führen, bringen:
    3. bewegen, verleiten, -führen ( alle:
    to zu), dahin bringen, veranlassen ( beide:
    to do zu tun):
    this led me to believe that … dies veranlasste mich zu glauben, dass …;
    what led you to think so? was brachte Sie zu dieser Ansicht?
    4. a) (an)führen, leiten, an der Spitze stehen von, SPORT führen vor (dat) oder gegen (by mit):
    lead an army eine Armee führen oder befehligen;
    lead the field SPORT das Feld anführen;
    lead the table SPORT die Tabelle anführen, an der Tabellenspitze stehen;
    lead sb by 20 seconds SPORT einen Vorsprung von 20 Sekunden vor jemandem haben
    b) eine Untersuchung etc leiten
    5. a) besonders US ein Orchester leiten, dirigieren
    b) besonders Br die erste Geige spielen oder Konzertmeister sein in (dat) oder bei
    6. ein behagliches etc Leben führen
    7. jemandem etwas bereiten: → dance C 1, dog Bes Redew
    8. einen Zeugen durch Suggestivfragen lenken
    9. eine Karte, Farbe etc aus-, anspielen
    10. Boxen: einen Schlag führen
    D v/i
    1. führen:
    a) vorangehen, den Weg weisen (auch fig)
    b) die erste oder leitende Stelle einnehmen, Führer sein
    c) SPORT an der Spitze oder in Führung liegen:
    lead by points nach Punkten führen
    2. führen (Straße, Gang etc):
    lead into münden in (akk);
    lead off abgehen von;
    lead to fig führen zu, zur Folge haben; → Rome A
    3. Boxen: (zu schlagen) beginnen:
    4. lead with (Journalismus) etwas als Aufmacher bringen
    5. lead with → C 9
    lead2 [led]
    A s
    1. CHEM Blei n:
    (as) heavy as lead bleischwer, schwer wie Blei (Sack, Füße etc); → balloon A 1
    2. SCHIFF Senkblei n, Lot n:
    cast ( oder heave) the lead das Lot auswerfen, loten;
    swing the lead Br sl sich (vor oder von der Arbeit) drücken, besonders krankmachen, krankfeiern umg
    3. Blei n, Kugeln pl (Geschosse)
    4. CHEM Grafit m, Reißblei n
    5. (Bleistift) Mine f:
    put lead in sb’s pencil umg hum jemandes Manneskraft stärken
    6. TYPO Durchschuss m
    7. Fensterblei n, Bleifassung f
    8. pl Br
    a) bleierne Dachplatten pl
    b) (flaches) Bleidach
    9. → white lead
    B v/t
    1. verbleien:
    leaded verbleit, (Benzin auch) bleihaltig
    2. a) mit Blei füllen
    b) mit Blei beschweren
    3. Fensterglas in Blei fassen:
    leaded window Bleiglasfenster n;
    leaded lights pl Bleiverglasung f
    4. TYPO durchschießen
    C v/i SCHIFF loten
    * * *
    I noun
    1) (metal) Blei, das

    go down like a lead balloon — mit Pauken und Trompeten durchfallen (ugs.); [Rede, Vorschlag usw.:] überhaupt nicht ankommen

    2) (in pencil) [Bleistift]mine, die
    II 1. transitive verb,

    lead somebody by the nose — (fig.) jemanden nach seiner Pfeife tanzen lassen

    lead somebody into trouble — (fig.) jemandem Ärger einbringen

    this is leading us nowhere — (fig.) das führt zu nichts

    2) (fig.): (influence, induce)

    lead somebody to do something — jemanden veranlassen, etwas zu tun

    that leads me to believe that... — das lässt mich glauben, dass...

    he led me to suppose/believe that... — er gab mir Grund zu der Annahme/er machte mich glauben, dass...

    3) führen [Leben]

    lead a life of misery/a miserable existence — ein erbärmliches Dasein führen/eine kümmerliche Existenz fristen

    4) (be first in) anführen

    Smith led Jones by several yards/seconds — (Sport) Smith hatte mehrere Yards/Sekunden Vorsprung vor Jones

    5) (direct, be head of) anführen [Bewegung, Abordnung]; leiten [Diskussion, Veranstaltung, Ensemble]; [Dirigent:] leiten [Orchester, Chor]; [Konzertmeister:] führen [Orchester]

    lead a party — Vorsitzender/Vorsitzende einer Partei sein

    2. intransitive verb,
    1) [Straße usw., Tür:] führen

    lead to the town/to the sea — zur Stadt/ans Meer führen

    2) (be first) führen; (go in front) vorangehen; (fig.): (be leader) an der Spitze stehen

    lead by 3 metres — mit 3 Metern in Führung liegen; 3 Meter Vorsprung haben

    3. noun
    1) (precedent) Beispiel, das; (clue) Anhaltspunkt, der

    follow somebody's lead, take one's lead from somebody — jemandes Beispiel (Dat.) folgen

    2) (first place) Führung, die

    be in the lead — in Führung liegen; an der Spitze liegen

    move or go into the lead, take the lead — sich an die Spitze setzen; in Führung gehen

    3) (amount, distance) Vorsprung, der
    4) (on dog etc.) Leine, die
    5) (Electr.) Kabel, das; Leitung, die
    6) (Theatre) Hauptrolle, die; (player) Hauptdarsteller, der/-darstellerin, die
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (editorial) n.
    Leitartikel m. n.
    Blei nur sing. n. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: led)
    = anführen v.
    führen v.
    leiten v.
    vorangehen v.

    English-german dictionary > lead

  • 13 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 14 der

    I best. Art.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) the; der eine ist fleißig, der andere faul (the) one is hard-working, the other one is lazy; der Tod death; der Mensch (alle Menschen) man(kind), humankind; der große Goethe the famous Goethe; der arme Peter poor Peter; der Peter, den ich kenne the Peter (who oder that) I know; der Hyde Park Hyde Park
    2. (Gen Sg. von die) of the; die Mauern der Stadt auch the city walls
    3. (Dat Sg. von die) to the; den Schlüssel habe ich der Nachbarin gegeben I gave the key to the neighbo(u)r
    4. (Gen Pl. von der, die, das) of the; die Ankunft der Kinder auch the children’s arrival
    II Dem. Pron.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) that (one), this (one); (er) he, it; der Mann hier this man; der mit dem Bart the one with the beard; nur der kann das verstehen, der... only he ( oder that man) who... can understand it; der und baden gehen? you won’t catch him going swimming; der und ehrlich? Dass ich nicht lache! him? honest? Pull the other one! ( oder Give me a break!)
    2. (Dat Sg. von die) zu der und der Zeit umg. at such and such a time
    III Rel. Pron.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) bei Personen: who, that; bei Sachen: which, that; der Bezirk, der einen Teil von X bildet the district forming part of X; der erste Stein, der geworfen wurde the first stone that was thrown; er war der Erste, der es erfuhr he was the first to know; jeder, der... anyone who...; ich, der ich selbst dabei war I, who was there myself
    2. (Dat Sg. von die) bei Personen: who(m), who... to, to whom förm.; bei Sachen: that, which; die Freundin, der ich meine Sorgen erzählte the friend (whom) I told about my problems ( oder to whom I told my problems)
    * * *
    which one (Pron.); that (Pron.); which (Pron.); who (Pron.); the ( Artikel)
    * * *
    I [deːɐ]
    1. def art
    1) gen sing, pl von die of the

    das Miauen dér Katze — the miaowing of the cat, the cat's miaowing

    2) dat sing von die to the; (mit Präposition) the
    2. dem pron dat sing von die
    1) (adjektivisch) to that; (mit Präpositionen) that
    2) (substantivisch) to her; her
    3. rel pron dat sing
    to whom, that or who(m)... to; (mit Präposition) who(m); (von Sachen) to which, which... to; which II [deːɐ] pl die
    1. def art gen des, der, des, pl der dat dem, der, dem, pl den acc den, die, das, pl die
    the

    dér/die Arme! — the poor man/woman or girl

    dér Engländer (dated inf: = die Engländer) — the Englishman

    dér Faust — Faust

    dér Hans (inf) — Hans

    dér kleine Hans — little Hans

    dér Rhein — the Rhine

    dér Michigansee — Lake Michigan

    die "Bismarck" — the "Bismarck"

    dér Lehrer/die Frau (im Allgemeinen) — teachers pl/women pl

    dér Tod/die Liebe/das Leben — death/love/life

    dér Tod des Sokrates — the death of Socrates

    in dem England, das ich kannte — in the England (that or which) I knew

    er liebt den Jazz/die Oper/das Kino — he likes jazz/(the) opera/the cinema

    das Herstellen von Waffen ist... — manufacturing weapons is..., the manufacturing of weapons is...

    dér spätere Wittgenstein — the later Wittgenstein

    er war nicht mehr dér Hans, dér... — he was no longer the Hans who...

    ein Euro das Stück — one euro apiece or each

    20 Euro die Stunde — 20 euros an or per hour

    dér und dér Wissenschaftler — such and such a scientist

    2. dem pron gen dessen or (old) des, deren, dessen,
    pl deren dat dem, der, dem, pl denen acc den, die, das, pl die
    1) (attr) (= jener, dieser) that; (pl) those, them (inf)

    zu dér und dér Zeit — at such and such a time

    an dem und dem Ort — at such and such a place

    2) (substantivisch) he/she/it; (pl) those, them (inf)

    dér/die war es — it was him/her

    dér/die mit dér großen Nase — the one or him/her (inf) with the big nose

    mit den roten Haaren — those or them (inf) with red hair

    deine Schwester, die war nicht da (inf) — your sister, she wasn't there

    dér und schwimmen? — him, swimming?, swimming, (what) him?

    dér/die hier (von Menschen) — he/she, this man/woman etc; (von Gegenständen) this (one); (von mehreren) this one

    dér/die da (von Menschen) — he/she, that man/woman etc; (von Gegenständen) that (one); (von mehreren) that one

    die hier/da pl — they, these/those men/women etc, these/those, them (inf)

    dér, den ich meine — the one I mean

    dér und dér/die und die — so-and-so

    3. rel pron decl as dem pron
    (Mensch) who, that; (Gegenstand, Tier) which, that
    4. rel + dem pron decl as dem pron

    dér/die dafür verantwortlich war,... — the man/woman who was responsible for it

    die so etwas tun,... — those or people who do that sort of thing...

    * * *
    der1
    [de:ɐ̯]
    I. art def, nom sing m
    1. (allgemein) the
    \der Hund/Mann/Tisch the dog/man/table
    \der Mai [the month of] May
    \der Angeber! that show-off!
    2. (bei Körperteilen)
    mir tut \der Hals weh my throat hurts
    \der Hunger/Irrsinn/Tod hunger/madness/death
    \der Tod des Ikaros the death of Icarus
    \der Stahl wird auch mit anderen Elementen legiert steel is also alloyed with other elements; (bei spezifischen Stoffen) the
    \der Sauerstoff in der Luft the oxygen in the air
    \der Mann des Tages the man of the moment
    das ist \der Augenblick, auf den wir gewartet haben that's [just] the moment we've been waiting for
    \der Irak/Iran Iraq/Iran
    \der Sudan The Sudan
    \der Kongo vor der Kolonialzeit pre-colonial Congo
    \der kleine Peter little Peter
    \der spätere Dickens the later Dickens
    er war nicht mehr \der Uli, der... he was no longer the Uli who...
    das ist \der Klaus that's Klaus
    \der Papa sagt,... [my] dad says...
    \der Mensch heute man today
    \der Franzose isst gern gut the French like to eat well
    9. (nach Angaben)
    5 Euro \der Liter €5 a [or per] litre
    10. (vor Angaben)
    \der 14. August 2003 14[th] August 2003, August 14[th], 2003; (gesprochen) the fourteenth of August 2003
    Heinrich \der Achte Henry the Eighth
    \der Kleine the little boy/one
    \der Älteste the oldest [one]
    II. pron dem, nom sing m
    1. attr, betont
    \der Mann war es! it was that man!
    \der Hut gefällt mir am besten I like that/this hat [or that/this hat I like] the most
    \der Stift da that pen [there]
    \der Stift hier this pen [here]
    \der und \der Experte such and such an expert
    \der war es! it was him!
    \der hat es getan! it was him that [or who] did it!
    \der sagte mir,... he told me...
    welcher Stift? \der da? oder \der hier? which pen? that one [there]? or this one [here]?
    wer ist denn \der? (fam) who on earth is he [or that]?
    \der und joggen? him, jogging?
    \der und \der such and such
    \der mit der Brille the one [or fam him] with the glasses
    welcher Ball? — \der mit den Punkten which ball? — the/this/that one with the spots
    ach \der! (pej) oh him!
    der Chef? \der ist nicht da the boss? he's not there
    dein Vater, \der ist nicht gekommen your father, he didn't come
    mein Schuh! \der ist weg! my shoe! it's gone!
    der Scheißkerl, \der! the bastard!
    der Grund ist \der, dass... the reason is that [or because]...
    \der, den ich meinte the one I meant
    wo ist dein Bruder? — \der ist oben where's your brother? — he's upstairs
    das ist ein neuer Drucker! warum druckt \der nicht? that's a new printer! why isn't it working?
    beißt \der? does it/he/she bite?
    III. pron rel, nom sing m
    1. that; (Person a.) who/whom form; (Gegenstand, Tier a.) which
    ich hörte/sah einen Wagen, \der um die Ecke fuhr I heard/saw a car driving around the corner
    ein Film, \der gut ankommt a much-acclaimed film
    ein Roman, \der von Millionen gelesen wurde a novel [that has been] read by millions
    der König, \der vierzig Jahre herrschte,... (einschränkend) the king who [or that] reigned for forty years...; (nicht einschränkend) the king, who reigned for forty years,...
    der Mantel, \der zum Trocknen aufgehängt war,... (einschränkend) the coat that [or which] was hung up to dry...; (nicht einschränkend) the coat, which was hung up to dry,...
    der Mörder, \der von der Polizei gesucht wird,... (einschränkend) the murderer [who [or that]] the police are searching for..., the murderer for whom the police are searching... form; (nicht einschränkend) the murderer, who the police are searching for,..., the murderer, for whom the police are searching,... form
    der Fall, \der von den Ermittlern untersucht werden soll,... (einschränkend) the case [that [or which]] the investigators have to look into..., the case into which the investigators have to look... form; (nicht einschränkend) the case, which the investigators have to look into,..., the case, into which the investigators have to look,... form
    \der mir jetzt hilft, wird belohnt anyone helping [or form he who helps] me now will be rewarded
    \der diesen Brief geschrieben hat, kann gut Deutsch the person/man who wrote this letter knows good German
    \der zu so etwas fähig ist,... people who are capable of such things...; s.a. das, die
    der2
    [ˈde:ɐ̯]
    art def, gen sing f
    der Hund \der alten Frau the old woman's dog
    die Hitze \der Sonne the heat of the sun, the sun's heat
    das Schnurren \der fetten Katze the fat cat's purring, the purring of the fat cat
    die Lösung \der Formel hier the solution to this formula, this formula's solution
    der Einspruch \der Frau da that woman's objection, the objection from that woman
    die Farbe \der Zunge deutete auf seine Krankheit the colour of his tongue indicated his illness
    ein Opfer \der Liebe a victim of love
    ein Zeichen \der Hoffnung a sign of hope
    das Kämmen \der Wolle the combing of wool
    die Berge \der Schweiz the mountains of Switzerland
    die Puppe \der kleinen Sabine little Sabine's doll
    ich ruf an wegen \der Anna I'm calling to talk to you about Anna
    die Arien \der Callas Callas' arias
    8. (form: vor Namen)
    ein Antrag \der Ute Kley a petition from Ute Kley
    die Rolle \der Frau in Management women's role [or the role of women] in management
    die Trinkfestigkeit \der Engländerin the ability of the Englishwoman to hold her drink
    10. (geh: nach Angaben)
    10 Meter \der kostbarsten Seide 10 metres of the most precious silk
    das Spielzeug \der Kleinen the little one's [or girl's] toys
    die Weisheit \der Ältesten the wisdom of the eldest [woman]; s.a. das, die
    der3
    I. art def, dat sing f
    1. siehe auch vb (allgemein)
    sie redeten mit/von \der Nachbarin they were talking with/about the neighbour
    ich klopfte an \der Tür I knocked at the door
    das Bild hängt an \der Wand the picture is hanging on the wall
    sie folgte \der Frau/Menge she followed the woman/crowd
    er gab \der Großmutter den Brief he gave his grandmother the letter, he gave the letter to his grandmother
    es gehört \der Frau da it belongs to that woman
    es entspricht \der Textstelle hier it corresponds to this passage in the text
    er schlug den Tisch mit \der Faust he thumped the table with his fist
    er widmete \der Liebe ein Gedicht he dedicated a poem to love
    mit \der Hoffnung eines Verzweifelten with the hope of a desperate man
    \der Bronze wird auch Phosphor beigemischt phosphorus is also added to bronze; (bei spezifischen Stoffen)
    mit \der Wolle dieses Schafs with the wool from this sheep, with this sheep's wool
    wir segelten mit \der ‚Nordwind‘ we sailed on the [yacht] ‘Nordwind’
    in \der Schweiz [der Zwischenkriegsjahre] in [interwar] Switzerland
    \der kleinen Jenny geht's nicht gut little Jenny isn't feeling well
    sie ist bei \der Kati she's at Kati's place
    er hat \der Callas mal die Hand geküsst he once kissed Callas' hand
    von \der Frau in der Industrie of women in industry
    als das Pferd \der Maschine wich when the horse gave way to the engine
    mit 20 Flaschen \der Kiste with 20 bottles a [or per] crate
    gib \der Kleinen einen Kuss give the little one a kiss
    wir gingen zu \der Ältesten we went to the elder
    II. pron dem, dat sing f
    1. attr, betont
    \der Pflanze muss man Dünger geben that plant must be given fertilizer
    \der Frau hast du es erzählt? you told it to that woman?
    zu \der und \der Zeit at such and such a time
    glaub \der bloß nicht! don't believe her [of all people]!
    III. pron rel, dat sing f, siehe auch vb
    meine Kollegin, \der die Aufgabe zugeteilt wurde,... (einschränkend) my colleague who [or that] was assigned the task...; (nicht einschränkend) my colleague, who was assigned the task,...
    die Lösung, \der der Alkohol entzogen war,... (einschränkend) the solution that [or which] had its alcohol extracted...; (nicht einschränkend) the solution, which had its alcohol extracted,...
    die Abgeordnete, \der ich oft schrieb,... (einschränkend) the MP [who [or that]] I often wrote to..., the MP to whom I often wrote... form; (nicht einschränkend) the MP, who I often wrote to,..., the MP, to whom I often wrote,... form
    die Grippe, unter \der sie leiden,... (einschränkend) the flu [that [or which]] they're suffering from..., the flu from which they're suffering... form; (nicht einschränkend) the flu, which they're suffering from,..., the flu, from which they're suffering,... form; s.a. das, die
    der4
    art def, gen pl
    1. siehe auch n (allgemein)
    die Anstrengungen \der Schüler the pupils' efforts, the efforts of the pupils
    die Zeichnungen \der beiden Schwestern the two sisters' drawings, the drawings by the two sisters
    das Gezwitscher \der Vögel the twittering of the birds
    das Gewicht \der Platten the weight of the slabs
    die Wohnung \der Eltern my/his/her etc. parents' flat
    die Lösungen \der Formeln hier the solutions to these formulae
    der Einspruch \der Frauen da those women's objection, the objection from those women
    die Farbe \der Haare gefiel ihr nicht she didn't like the colour of her hair
    die Sprachen \der Niederlande the languages of [or spoken in] the Netherlands
    das Haus \der Müllers the Millers' house
    4. (form: vor Namen)
    ein Antrag \der Heinz und Ute Kley a petition from Heinz and Ute Kley
    die Rolle \der Pflanzen in der Medizin the role of plants in medicine
    6. (geh: nach Angaben)
    10 Kisten \der feinsten Äpfel 10 crates of the finest apples
    das Spielzeug \der Kleinen the little ones' toys
    die Weisheit \der Ältesten the wisdom of the elders; s.a. das, die
    * * *
    I 1.
    bestimmter Artikel Nom. the

    der April/Winter — April/winter

    der ‘Faust’ — ‘Faust’

    der Dieter — (ugs.) Dieter

    der Kapitalismus/Islam — capitalism/Islam

    der Bodensee/Mount Everest — Lake Constance/Mount Everest

    2.
    1) attr. that

    der und arbeiten! — (ugs.) [what,] him work! (coll.)

    der [da] — (Mann) that man; (Gegenstand, Tier) that one

    der [hier] — (Mann) this man; (Gegenstand, Tier) this one

    3.
    Relativpronomen (Mensch) who/that; (Sache) which/that

    der Mann, der da drüben entlanggeht — the man walking along over there

    4.
    Relativ- und Demonstrativpronomen the one who
    II 1.
    bestimmter Artikel
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 1.
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 1.: to the; (nach Präp.) the
    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 1., die I 1., das 1.

    das Haus der Freunde — our/their etc. friends' house

    2.
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 2. 1): of the; of that
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 2. attr

    der Frau [da/hier] gehört es — it belongs to that woman there/this woman here; allein stehend

    gib es der da! — (ugs.) give it to 'her

    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 2. 1), die I 2. 1), das 2. 1): of those
    3.
    Relativpronomen; Dat. Sg. v. die I 3. (Person) whom

    die Frau, der ich es gegeben habe — the woman to whom 1 gave it; the woman 1 gave it to; (Sache) that/which

    die Katze, der er einen Tritt gab — the cat [that] he kicked

    * * *
    A. best art
    1. m; (nom sg) the;
    der eine ist fleißig, der andere faul (the) one is hard-working, the other one is lazy;
    der Tod death;
    der Mensch (alle Menschen) man(kind), humankind;
    der große Goethe the famous Goethe;
    der arme Peter poor Peter;
    der Peter, den ich kenne the Peter (who oder that) I know;
    der Hyde Park Hyde Park
    2. (gen sg von die) of the;
    die Mauern der Stadt auch the city walls
    3. (dat sg von die) to the;
    den Schlüssel habe ich der Nachbarin gegeben I gave the key to the neighbo(u)r
    4. (gen pl von der, die, das) of the;
    die Ankunft der Kinder auch the children’s arrival
    B. dem pr
    1. m; (nom sg) that (one), this (one); (er) he, it;
    der Mann hier this man;
    der mit dem Bart the one with the beard;
    nur der kann das verstehen, der … only he ( oder that man) who … can understand it;
    der und baden gehen? you won’t catch him going swimming;
    der und ehrlich? Dass ich nicht lache! him? honest? Pull the other one! ( oder Give me a break!)
    2. (dat sg von die)
    zu der und der Zeit umg at such and such a time
    C. rel pr
    1. m; (nom sg) bei Personen: who, that; bei Sachen: which, that;
    der Bezirk, der einen Teil von X bildet the district forming part of X;
    der erste Stein, der geworfen wurde the first stone that was thrown;
    er war der Erste, der es erfuhr he was the first to know;
    jeder, der … anyone who …;
    ich, der ich selbst dabei war I, who was there myself
    2. (dat sg von die) bei Personen: who(m), who … to, to whom form; bei Sachen: that, which;
    die Freundin, der ich meine Sorgen erzählte the friend (whom) I told about my problems ( oder to whom I told my problems)
    * * *
    I 1.
    bestimmter Artikel Nom. the

    der April/Winter — April/winter

    der ‘Faust’ — ‘Faust’

    der Dieter — (ugs.) Dieter

    der Kapitalismus/Islam — capitalism/Islam

    der Bodensee/Mount Everest — Lake Constance/Mount Everest

    2.
    1) attr. that

    der und arbeiten! — (ugs.) [what,] him work! (coll.)

    der [da] — (Mann) that man; (Gegenstand, Tier) that one

    der [hier] — (Mann) this man; (Gegenstand, Tier) this one

    3.
    Relativpronomen (Mensch) who/that; (Sache) which/that

    der Mann, der da drüben entlanggeht — the man walking along over there

    4.
    Relativ- und Demonstrativpronomen the one who
    II 1.
    bestimmter Artikel
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 1.
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 1.: to the; (nach Präp.) the
    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 1., die I 1., das 1.

    das Haus der Freunde — our/their etc. friends' house

    2.
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 2. 1): of the; of that
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 2. attr

    der Frau [da/hier] gehört es — it belongs to that woman there/this woman here; allein stehend

    gib es der da! — (ugs.) give it to 'her

    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 2. 1), die I 2. 1), das 2. 1): of those
    3.
    Relativpronomen; Dat. Sg. v. die I 3. (Person) whom

    die Frau, der ich es gegeben habe — the woman to whom 1 gave it; the woman 1 gave it to; (Sache) that/which

    die Katze, der er einen Tritt gab — the cat [that] he kicked

    * * *
    (neueste) Stand der Technik m.
    the state of the art n. art.m.
    the art. pron.
    which pron.
    who pron.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > der

  • 15 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

  • 16 class

    1. noun
    1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das
    2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die
    3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

    be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

    4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
    2. transitive verb
    * * *
    1. plural - classes; noun
    1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) die Gruppe
    2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) die Schicht
    3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) der Rang
    4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) die Klasse
    5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) die Unterrichtsstunde
    6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)
    2. verb
    (to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) einstufen
    - academic.ru/13277/classmate">classmate
    - class-room
    * * *
    [klɑ:s, AM klæs]
    I. n
    <pl -es>
    1. + sing/pl vb (pupils) [Schul]klasse f
    2. (lesson) [Unterrichts]stunde f; (teaching) Unterricht m kein pl; SPORT Kurs[us] m
    \classes have been cancelled today heute fällt der Unterricht aus
    to go to an aerobics \class einen Aerobic-Kurs besuchen, in einen Aerobic-Kurs gehen
    to go to evening \class[es] einen Abendkurs besuchen
    to attend [or go to] \class[es] am Unterricht teilnehmen
    to talk in \class während des Unterrichts reden
    to take [or teach] a German/civil law \class Deutsch/Zivilrecht unterrichten; UNIV (lecture) eine Deutschvorlesung/Vorlesung zum Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (seminar) ein Deutschseminar/Seminar in Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (course) eine Deutsch-Übung/Übung in Zivilrecht [ab]halten
    3. + sing/pl vb AM (graduates) Jahrgang m
    the \class of 1975/1980 der Jahrgang 1975/1980
    4. + sing/pl vb (stratum) Klasse f, Schicht f
    the middle/upper \class die Mittel-/Oberschicht
    the working \class die Arbeiterklasse
    5. no pl (social membership) Klassenzugehörigkeit f
    6. (category, quality) Klasse f
    shall I post the letter first or second \class? BRIT soll ich den Brief als Erste- oder Zweite-Klasse-Sendung aufgeben?
    first \class hotel Erste Klasse [o First Class] Hotel nt
    to travel first/second \class erste[r]/zweite[r] Klasse fahren
    C\class A/I COMM Handelsklasse f A/I
    all the vegetables we sell are \class A wir verkaufen nur Gemüse der Handelsklasse A
    7. BRIT, AUS (diploma) Prädikat nt, SCHWEIZ a. Note f
    what \class did you get? mit welchem Prädikat hast du [dein Examen] bestanden?
    a first-\class honours degree ein Prädikatsexamen nt
    a second-\class honours degree ein Examen nt mit dem Prädikat ‚gut‘
    8. no pl (style) Klasse, f
    to have [no] \class [keine] Klasse haben fam
    9. BIOL, ZOOL Klasse f
    10. AM FIN Aktiengattung f
    11. LAW
    C\class F charge Belastung f in Abteilung 6 fachspr
    12.
    ▶ to be in a \class of one's own [or by oneself] eine Klasse für sich akk sein
    ▶ to be out of sb's \class jdm haushoch überlegen sein, um Klassen besser [als jd] sein fam
    II. adj attr, inv (excellent) erstklassig, klasse fam
    world \class player Weltklassespieler(in) m(f)
    III. vt
    ▪ to \class sb/sth [as sth] jdn/etw [als etw akk] einstufen
    when I travel by bus I'm still \classed as a child wenn ich mit dem Bus fahre, gelte ich noch als Kind
    I would \class her among the top ten novelists ich würde sie zu den zehn besten Schriftstellern zählen
    * * *
    [klAːs]
    1. n
    1) (= group, division) Klasse f

    they're just not in the same class — man kann sie einfach nicht vergleichen

    in a class by himself/itself or of his/its own — weitaus der/das Beste

    2) (= social rank) gesellschaftliche Stellung, Stand m (dated), Klasse f (SOCIOL)

    the ruling class — die herrschende Klasse, die Herrschenden

    considerations of class — Standeserwägungen pl (dated), Klassengesichtspunkte pl

    it was class not ability that determined who... —

    what class is he from? — aus welcher Schicht or Klasse kommt er?

    are you ashamed of your class? — schämst du dich deines Standes (dated) or deiner Herkunft?

    3) (SCH, UNIV) Klasse f

    to take a Latin class — Latein unterrichten or geben; (Univ) ein Lateinseminar etc abhalten

    eating in class — Essen nt während des Unterrichts

    the class of 1980 — der Jahrgang 1980, die Schul-/Universitätsabgänger etc des Jahres 1980

    4) (BOT, ZOOL) Klasse f
    5) (Brit UNIV of degree) Prädikat nt

    second-/third-class degree — ≈ Prädikat Gut/Befriedigend

    6) (inf: quality, tone) Stil m

    to have class — Stil haben, etwas hermachen (inf); (person) Format haben

    I see we've got a bit of class in tonight, two guys in dinner jackets — heute Abend haben wir ja vornehme or exklusive Gäste, zwei Typen im Smoking

    2. adj
    (inf: excellent) erstklassig, exklusiv
    3. vt
    einordnen, klassifizieren

    he was classed with the servants — er wurde genauso eingestuft wie die Diener

    4. vi
    eingestuft werden, sich einordnen lassen
    * * *
    class [klɑːs; US klæs]
    A s
    1. Klasse f ( auch BIOL), Gruppe f, Kategorie f, Art f
    2. (Wert)Klasse f:
    be in the same class with gleichwertig sein mit;
    be (in) a class by oneself ( oder of one’s own) eine Klasse für sich sein;
    be no class umg minderwertig sein
    3. (Güte)Klasse f, Qualität f
    4. BAHN etc Klasse f
    5. a) gesellschaftlicher Rang, soziale Stellung
    b) (Gesellschafts) Klasse f, (Bevölkerungs) Schicht f:
    pull class on sb umg jemanden seine gesellschaftliche Überlegenheit fühlen lassen
    6. umg Klasse f umg, Erstklassigkeit f:
    he (it) has class er (es) ist (große) Klasse
    7. SCHULE
    a) (Schul) Klasse f:
    be at the top of one’s class der Klassenerste sein
    b) (Unterrichts)Stunde f:
    attend classes am Unterricht teilnehmen
    8. Kurs m
    9. UNIV US
    a) Studenten pl eines Jahrgangs, Studentenjahrgang m
    b) Promotionsklasse f
    c) Seminar n
    10. UNIV Br
    b) Stufe f, Gruppe f, Klasse f (Einteilung der Kandidaten nach dem Resultat der honours- Prüfung):
    11. MIL Rekrutenjahrgang m
    12. MATH Aggregat n, mehrgliedrige Zahlengröße
    B v/t klassifizieren:
    a) in Klassen einteilen
    b) in eine Klasse einteilen, einordnen, einstufen:
    class with gleichstellen mit, rechnen zu;
    a) angesehen oder betrachtet werden (as als),
    b) UNIV Br einen honours degree verliehen bekommen
    C v/i angesehen werden (as als)
    cl. abk
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das
    2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die
    3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

    be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

    4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
    2. transitive verb
    * * *
    Schulklasse f. n.
    (§ pl.: classes)
    = Klasse -n f.
    Kurs -e m.
    Kursus -e (Bildung) m.
    Stand ¨-e m. v.
    einordnen v.

    English-german dictionary > class

  • 17 Animal Intelligence

       We can... distinguish sharply between the kind of behavior which from the very beginning arises out of a consideration of the structure of a situation, and one that does not. Only in the former case do we speak of insight, and only that behavior of animals definitely appears to us intelligent which takes account from the beginning of the lay of the land, and proceeds to deal with it in a single, continuous, and definite course. Hence follows this criterion of insight: the appearance of a complete solution with reference to the whole lay- out of the field. (KoЁhler, 1927, pp. 169-170)
       Signs, in [Edward] Tolman's theory, occasion in the rat realization, or cognition, or judgment, or hypotheses, or abstraction, but they do not occasion action. In his concern with what goes on in the rat's mind, Tolman has neglected to predict what the rat will do. So far as the theory is concerned the rat is left buried in thought: if he gets to the food-box at the end that is his concern, not the concern of the theory. (Guthrie, 1972, p. 172)
       3) A New Insight Consists of a Recombination of Pre-existent Mediating Properties
       The insightful act is an excellent example of something that is not learned, but still depends on learning. It is not learned, since it can be adequately performed on its first occurrence; it is not perfected through practice in the first place, but appears all at once in recognizable form (further practice, however, may still improve it). On the other hand, the situation must not be completely strange; the animal must have had prior experience with the component parts of the situation, or with other situations that have some similarity to it.... All our evidence thus points to the conclusion that a new insight consists of a recombination of pre existent mediating processes, not the sudden appearance of a wholly new process. (Hebb, 1958, pp. 204-205)
       In Morgan's own words, the principle is, "In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale." Behaviorists universally adopted this idea as their own, interpreting it as meaning that crediting consciousness to animals can't be justified if the animal's behavior can be explained in any other way, because consciousness is certainly a "higher psychical faculty." Actually, their interpretation is wrong, since Morgan was perfectly happy with the idea of animal consciousness: he even gives examples of it directly taken from dog behavior. Thus in The Limits of Animal Intelligence, he describes a dog returning from a walk "tired" and "hungry" and going down into the kitchen and "looking up wistfully" at the cook. Says Morgan about this, "I, for one, would not feel disposed to question that he has in his mind's eye a more or less definite idea of a bone."
       Morgan's Canon really applies to situations where the level of intelligence credited to an animal's behavior goes well beyond what is really needed for simple and sensible explanation. Thus application of Morgan's Canon would prevent us from presuming that, when a dog finds its way home after being lost for a day, it must have the ability to read a map, or that, if a dog always begins to act hungry and pace around the kitchen at 6 P.M. and is always fed at 6:30 P.M., this must indicate that it has learned how to tell time. These conclusions involve levels of intelligence that are simply not needed to explain the behaviors. (Coren, 1994, pp. 72-73)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Animal Intelligence

  • 18 Learning

       One mental function or activity improves others in so far as and because they are in part identical with it, because it contains elements common to them. Addition improves multiplication because multiplication is largely addition; knowledge of Latin gives increased ability to learn French because many of the facts learned in the one case are needed in the other. (Thorndike, 1906, p. 243)
        The Law of Effect is that: Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to recur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond.
        The Law of Exercise is that: Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that situation and to the average vigor and duration of the connections. (E. L. Thorndike, 1970, p. 244)
       The main objection to the prevailing [associationist] theory, which makes one kind of connection the basis of all learning, is not that it may be incorrect but that in the course of psychological research it has prevented an unbiased study of other kinds of learning. (Katona, 1940, pp. 4-5)
       I believe that learning by examples, learning by being told, learning by imitation, learning by reinforcement and other forms are much like one another. In the literature on learning there is frequently an unstated assumption that these various forms are fundamentally different. But I think the classical boundaries between the various kinds of learning will disappear once superficially different kinds of learning are understood in terms of processes that construct and manipulate descriptions. (Winston, 1975, p. 185)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Learning

  • 19 resource

    rə'zo:s, ]( American) 'ri:zo:rs
    1) ((usually in plural) something that gives help, support etc when needed; a supply; a means: We have used up all our resources; We haven't the resources at this school for teaching handicapped children.) recurso
    2) ((usually in plural) the wealth of a country, or the supply of materials etc which bring this wealth: This country is rich in natural resources.) recursos
    3) (the ability to find ways of solving difficulties: He is full of resource.) inventiva, ideas
    •
    - resourcefully
    - resourcefulness
    resource n recurso
    tr[rɪ'zɔːs]
    1 recurso
    resource ['ri:.sors, ri'sors] n
    1) resourcefulness: ingenio m, recursos mpl
    2) resources npl
    : recursos mpl
    natural resources: recursos naturales
    3) resources npl
    means: recursos mpl, medios mpl, fondos mpl
    n.
    • recurso (Informática) s.m.
    n.
    • inventiva s.f.
    • recurso s.m.
    'riːsɔːrs, rɪ'sɔːs
    count noun recurso m

    natural/human resources — recursos naturales/humanos

    teaching resources — material m didáctico

    resource center — a) centro que suministra información, asesoramiento etc; b) ( Educ) centro m de material didáctico

    [rɪ'sɔːs]
    1. N
    1) (=expedient) recurso m, expediente m
    2) resources (=wealth, goods) recursos mpl

    to leave sb to his own resources — (fig) dejar que algn se apañe como pueda

    3) (=resourcefulness) inventiva f
    2.
    * * *
    ['riːsɔːrs, rɪ'sɔːs]
    count noun recurso m

    natural/human resources — recursos naturales/humanos

    teaching resources — material m didáctico

    resource center — a) centro que suministra información, asesoramiento etc; b) ( Educ) centro m de material didáctico

    English-spanish dictionary > resource

  • 20 resource

    rə'zo:s, ]( American) 'ri:zo:rs
    1) ((usually in plural) something that gives help, support etc when needed; a supply; a means: We have used up all our resources; We haven't the resources at this school for teaching handicapped children.) (hjelpe)middel, ressurs
    2) ((usually in plural) the wealth of a country, or the supply of materials etc which bring this wealth: This country is rich in natural resources.) ressurser, naturrikdommer
    3) (the ability to find ways of solving difficulties: He is full of resource.) oppfinnsomhet, påfunn
    •
    - resourcefully
    - resourcefulness
    ressurs
    --------
    resurs
    subst. \/rɪˈsɔːs\/, \/rɪˈzɔːs\/
    1) ( vanlig i flertall) ressurser, midler, evner
    hun utnyttet sine evner\/ressurser maksimalt
    2) utvei, råd, hjelpemiddel
    be at the end of one's resources stå på bar bakke, ikke vite sin arme råd
    be full of resource alltid finne en løsning på noe, alltid finne en utvei
    be thrown upon one's resources bli\/være overlatt til seg selv, måtte klare seg selv
    leave a person to his\/her own resources overlate noen til seg selv
    a man of resources en snarrådig\/oppfinnsom mann

    English-Norwegian dictionary > resource

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